for (int i = off; i < off + len; i++) {
        out.write(b[i]);
      }
    } else {
      out.write(b, off, len);
    }
    out.flush(); // for coverage
  }

  // TODO(chrisn): only works if we ensure we have crossed file threshold

  public void testWriteErrorAfterClose() throws Exception {
    byte[] data = newPreFilledByteArray(100);
    FileBackedOutputStream out = new FileBackedOutputStream(50);

It also re-declares `id: int`. By doing this, we are making a **contract** with the API clients, so that they can always expect the `id` to be there and to be an `int` (it will never be `None`).

/// tip

Having the return model ensure that a value is always available and always `int` (not `None`) is very useful for the API clients, they can write much simpler code having this certainty.

import java.util.ArrayList;
import java.util.List;
import java.util.concurrent.atomic.AtomicInteger;
import org.jspecify.annotations.NullMarked;
import org.jspecify.annotations.Nullable;

/**
 * Tester to ensure forwarding wrapper works by delegating calls to the corresponding method with
 * the same parameters forwarded and return value forwarded back or exception propagated as is.
 *
 * <p>For example:
 *
 * {@snippet :

		vStr, ok := v.(string)
		if ok {
			// Trim any LDAP specific prefix
			args[strings.ToLower(strings.TrimPrefix(k, "ldap"))] = []string{vStr}
		}
	}

	// Add groups claim which could be a list. This will ensure that the claim
	// `jwt:groups` works.
	if grpsVal, ok := claims["groups"]; ok {
		if grpsIs, ok := grpsVal.([]any); ok {
			grps := []string{}
			for _, gI := range grpsIs {
				if g, ok := gI.(string); ok {

          if ((hash1 & (1 << k)) == (hash2 & (1 << k))) {
            same[k] += 1;
          } else {
            diff[k] += 1;
          }
        }
      }
      // measure probability and assert it's within margin of error
      for (int j = 0; j < hashBits; j++) {
        double prob = (double) diff[j] / (double) (diff[j] + same[j]);
        assertThat(prob).isWithin(epsilon).of(0.50d);

 *
 * <p>The class is thread-safe due to the use of {@code synchronized} keyword on methods that
 * modify the internal data structures. The internal maps are also declared as {@code volatile}
 * to ensure visibility of changes across threads.
 *
 * <p>The class also provides methods to manage URL patterns for inclusion and exclusion, which
 * are stored as {@code Pattern} objects.
 */
public class MemoryDataHelper {

      for (int insertion = 0; insertion < totalInsertions; insertion++) {
        RandomHasherAction.pickAtRandom(random).performAction(random, sinksAndControl);
      }
      // We need to ensure that at least 4 bytes have been put into the hasher or else
      // Hasher#hash will throw an ISE.
      int intToPut = random.nextInt();
      for (Hasher hasher : sinksAndControl) {
        hasher.putInt(intToPut);

    /**
     * Timestamp of the last time data store names were loaded from plugin files.
     * Used to implement a time-based cache refresh mechanism.
     * Volatile to ensure visibility across threads.
     */
    protected volatile long lastLoadedTime = 0;

    /**
     * Creates a new instance of DataStoreFactory.

    assertEquals(4, list.lastIndexOf("b"));
  }

  public void testCopyOfDefensiveCopy() {
    // Depending on JDK version, either toArray() or toArray(T[]) may be called... use this class
    // rather than mocking to ensure that one of those methods is called.
    class TestArrayList<E> extends ArrayList<E> {
      boolean toArrayCalled = false;

      @Override
      public Object[] toArray() {
        toArrayCalled = true;

    this.replacements = escaperMap.getReplacementArray();
    this.replacementsLength = replacements.length;
    if (safeMax < safeMin) {
      // If the safe range is empty, set the range limits to opposite extremes
      // to ensure the first test of either value will (almost certainly) fail.
      safeMax = Character.MIN_VALUE;
      safeMin = Character.MAX_VALUE;
    }
    this.safeMin = safeMin;
    this.safeMax = safeMax;
  }

  /*