assertThat(expected).hasMessageThat().contains("connected");

    // adjacent below
    assertEquals(Range.closedOpen(4, 4), range.intersection(Range.closedOpen(2, 4)));

    // overlap below
    assertEquals(Range.closed(4, 6), range.intersection(Range.closed(2, 6)));

    // enclosed with same start
    assertEquals(Range.closed(4, 6), range.intersection(Range.closed(4, 6)));

    validations:
      required: true

  - type: textarea
    id: orthogonality
    attributes:
      label: "Orthogonality: How does this change interact or overlap with existing features?"
      description: "Is the goal of this change a performance improvement? If so, what quantifiable improvement should we expect? How would we measure it?"
    validations:
      required: false

   * Overlapping ranges and empty ranges are forbidden, though adjacent ranges are permitted and
   * will be merged.
   *
   * @throws IllegalArgumentException if any ranges overlap or are empty
   * @since 21.0
   */
  public static <C extends Comparable<?>> ImmutableRangeSet<C> copyOf(Iterable<Range<C>> ranges) {
    return new ImmutableRangeSet.Builder<C>().addAll(ranges).build();
  }

        checkInvalidRange("[1.0,1.0)");
        checkInvalidRange("(1.0,1.0)");
        checkInvalidRange("[1.1,1.0]");
        checkInvalidRange("[1.0,1.2),1.3");
        // overlap
        checkInvalidRange("[1.0,1.2),(1.1,1.3]");
        // overlap
        checkInvalidRange("[1.1,1.3),(1.0,1.2]");
        // ordering
        checkInvalidRange("(1.1,1.2],[1.0,1.1)");
    }

    @Test

Also, the best approach was to use already existing standards.

So, before even starting to code **FastAPI**, I spent several months studying the specs for OpenAPI, JSON Schema, OAuth2, etc. Understanding their relationship, overlap, and differences.

## Design { #design }

Then I spent some time designing the developer "API" I wanted to have as a user (as a developer using FastAPI).

                assertNotEquals(attributes[i], attributes[j], "Attributes should have distinct values");
                assertEquals(0, attributes[i] & attributes[j], "Attributes should not overlap in bit patterns");
            }
        }
    }

    @Test
    @DisplayName("Should have resource types with power-of-2 values")
    void testResourceTypeBitPatterns() {

	}
	// Mask matches maskString, should get result
	if err := ps.Subscribe(Mask(1|2), ch2, doneCh, func(entry Maskable) bool { return true }); err != nil {
		t.Fatalf("unexpected error: %v", err)
	}
	// Does NOT overlap maskString
	if err := ps.Subscribe(Mask(2), ch3, doneCh, func(entry Maskable) bool { return true }); err != nil {
		t.Fatalf("unexpected error: %v", err)
	}
	val := maskString("hello")
	ps.Publish(val)

            byte[] outputBytes, int ioctlFlags) {
        final int headerLen = 64; // SMB2 header is 64 bytes
        final int bodyFixed = 48; // body size minus 1 for structure size field overlap
        final int payloadStart = headerLen + bodyFixed;
        final int bodyLen = bodyFixed + inputCount + outputCount;

        byte[] buf = new byte[bodyLen];
        int pos = 0;

            assertEquals(0x0002, Smb2Constants.SMB2_NEGOTIATE_SIGNING_REQUIRED, "Signing required flag must be 0x0002");
        }

        @Test
        @DisplayName("Signing flags should not overlap")
        void testSigningFlagsNoOverlap() {
            assertNotEquals(Smb2Constants.SMB2_NEGOTIATE_SIGNING_ENABLED, Smb2Constants.SMB2_NEGOTIATE_SIGNING_REQUIRED,
                    "Signing flags must be distinct");

 *
 * Mappings Data (4,719 bytes)
 * ===========================
 *
 * This is UTF-8 character data. It is indexed into by b2b3 in the ranges dataset.
 *
 * Mappings may overlap.
 *
 * ASCII-Only
 * ==========
 *
 * Neither the section index nor the ranges data use bit 0x80 anywhere. That means the data is