*         If all functions return null, the composite function returns null.
     *
     * @throws NullPointerException if the input collection is null or contains null elements.
     */
    static Function<String, String> chain(Collection<? extends Function<String, String>> functions) {
        return s -> {
            for (Function<String, String> function : functions) {
                String v = function.apply(s);

    <function-class>org.codelibs.fess.taglib.FessFunctions</function-class>
    <function-signature>java.lang.String sdh(java.lang.String)</function-signature>
    <example>${fe:sdh(doc.similar_docs_hash)}</example>
  </function>

  <function>
    <description>Concatenate strings.</description>
    <name>join</name>
    <function-class>org.codelibs.fess.taglib.FessFunctions</function-class>

In this case, the task function will write to a file (simulating sending an email).

And as the write operation doesn't use `async` and `await`, we define the function with normal `def`:

{* ../../docs_src/background_tasks/tutorial001.py hl[6:9] *}

## Add the background task

    checkArgument(!list.isEmpty(), "number of hash functions (%s) must be > 0", list.size());
    return new ConcatenatedHashFunction(list.toArray(new HashFunction[0]));
  }

  private static final class ConcatenatedHashFunction extends AbstractCompositeHashFunction {

    private ConcatenatedHashFunction(HashFunction... functions) {
      super(functions);
      for (HashFunction function : functions) {
        checkArgument(

emoveAttribute("id")}}}return re(t.replace(ve,"$1"),e,n,r)}function W(){var r=[];return function e(t,n){return r.push(t+" ")>b.cacheLength&&delete e[r.shift()],e[t+" "]=n}}function F(e){return e[S]=!0,e}function $(e){var t=T.createElement("fieldset");try{return!!e(t)}catch(e){return!1}finally{t.parentNode&&t.parentNode.removeChild(t),t=null}}function B(t){return function(e){return fe(e,"input")&&e.type===t}}function _(t){return function(e){return(fe(e,"input")||fe(e,"button"))&&e.type===t}}function...

      extends AbstractTransformFuture<I, O, Function<? super I, ? extends O>, O> {
    TransformFuture(
        ListenableFuture<? extends I> inputFuture, Function<? super I, ? extends O> function) {
      super(inputFuture, function);
    }

    @Override
    @ParametricNullness
    O doTransform(Function<? super I, ? extends O> function, @ParametricNullness I input) {
      return function.apply(input);
    }

    @Override

///

## Other Asynchronous Function Calls

As the testing function is now asynchronous, you can now also call (and `await`) other `async` functions apart from sending requests to your FastAPI application in your tests, exactly as you would call them anywhere else in your code.

/// tip

      implements Serializable {
    private final Function<? super A, ? extends B> forwardFunction;
    private final Function<? super B, ? extends A> backwardFunction;

    private FunctionBasedConverter(
        Function<? super A, ? extends B> forwardFunction,
        Function<? super B, ? extends A> backwardFunction) {
      this.forwardFunction = checkNotNull(forwardFunction);

          V,
          I extends Table<R, C, V>>
      Collector<T, ?, I> toTable(
          java.util.function.Function<? super T, ? extends R> rowFunction,
          java.util.function.Function<? super T, ? extends C> columnFunction,
          java.util.function.Function<? super T, ? extends V> valueFunction,
          java.util.function.Supplier<I> tableSupplier) {
    return TableCollectors.<T, R, C, V, I>toTable(

Let's first focus on the dependency.

It is just a function that can take all the same parameters that a *path operation function* can take:

{* ../../docs_src/dependencies/tutorial001_an_py310.py hl[8:9] *}

That's it.

**2 lines**.

And it has the same shape and structure that all your *path operation functions* have.

You can think of it as a *path operation function* without the "decorator" (without the `@app.get("/some-path")`).